My Thesis Literature Review Proposal. :) Primates & Psychological Disorders

[djfishygillz]

Here is my thesis proposal. Hope you like it. My class starts the final thesis shortly. This is just presenting our basic themes and significant data.

Also this is submitted to turnitin.com so please do no plagiarize for your highschool class or whatever else lol.

Enjoy and I would love to hear feedback. Also if there are typos please don't point those out as I have already submitted the paper lol.

Also I would love feedback from anyone with a Psychology/Zoology/Biology Masters! Or feedback from anyone is still appreciated.












The Psychological Effects of Social and Environmental Trauma on Nonhuman Primates (NHP)

Nick Gill

Dr. Hager

Research Proposal Guidelines

February 13, 2014






















The Psychological Effects of Social and Environmental Trauma on Nonhuman Primates

Abstract

Over the past few decades the exploration of psychology in nonhuman mammals has grown. The psychological research in such mammals has taken a specific focus in primates, nonhuman primates to be precise. As research has developed, psychology of nonhuman primates appears to parallel humans. Trauma causes psychological disorders in humans, and it appears that psychological disorders in primates are due to trauma as well. Research states that the trauma caused in nonhuman primates can be derived from two causes, psychosocial and environmental trauma, that later results in psychological disorders. Typically when the trauma occurs early in life, the higher the severity of the psychological disorder. The resulting outcomes of this trauma are negative and can be observed in the behavior of the nonhuman primates, specifically exhibited with aberrant or antisocial behaviors. Through the observed negative behavior in traumatized nonhuman primates, the goal is that further research will continue to unfold, and provide significant support that the psychological disorders are present. Once more research is done, the hope is that the husbandry of nonhuman primates will improve in zoos, sanctuaries, and research facilities. Some psychological disorders in nonhuman primates that have had the most similarities to humans are, post-traumatic stress disorder (P.T.S.D), major depressive disorder (M.D.D.), and self-injurious behavior (S.I.B). Ways to prevent or diminish psychological disorders in nonhuman primates is through environmental enrichment, and multifaceted therapy treatment. With the many similarities to humans, it is important nonhuman primates in captivity be given proper husbandry and live psychologically healthy lifes.

Keywords: Psychological disorder, nonhuman primate, posttraumatic stress disorder, self-injurious behavior, aberrant behavior, captivity, enrichment, chimpanzee, monkey, gorilla, ape, orangutan

Introduction

Chimpanzees, gorillas, apes, orangutans, monkeys, all primates like us, are suffering in captivity due to humans ripping them from their environments or using them for testing. Luckily, some researchers know the importance of learning new methods to treat our not so distant relatives, who can not speak for themselves.

Over the past century, studying and analyzing the mind of humans has been the focal point of psychology research. According to Darwin and many other evolutionist we are thought to have our origins in the dna that stemmed from nonhuman primates, and specifically the great apes. Thus it is interesting to think what are the similarities and differences we have to nonhuman primates? I believe that humans are not the only animals that experience psychological disorders. I feel that there is enough evidence to prove that nonhuman primates can experience psychological disorders comparable to that of humans.

The importance of this research is to show that nonhuman primates do experience psychological disorders, and it is our responsibility to be their voice. We must make sure they are as psychologically healthy as possible when in captive environments. Also we need to reconsider how testing is performed on primates, because some test may prove unethical if they do experience psychological disorders. Another reason to study primates is since humans and primates do have many similarities, we can draw information on how bad parenting and isolation in primates youth leads to bad parenting behaviors as adults. For example, how primates are more likely to be aggressive towards their infants if they had little, to no maternal care themselves. It would be an injustice to the animal kingdom to not do this research as it is unloading so much useful information to the psychology field.

Since the field of primate psychological disorders is fairly new, it is important that it be highly critiqued and challenged to make sure the results are significant. Studying primates is challenging and results can easily be misinterpreted. Also there are few proper definitions to provide a foreground of how to use proper test to get meaningful results. By critiquing and weeding out the poor research methods, scientist can continue to study primates with ever advancing methods thus plunging further into the mind of primates with quality assurance.

PsychArticles and PsychInfo have been the major research databases used. Followed by Ebsco and lastly Google Scholar. The major key terms used consisted of nonhuman primate, chimpanzee, psychological disorder, captivity, self-injurious behavior, isolation, aggression, behavior, aberrant, P.T.S.D., and major depressive disorder. The literature has been split into two groups: environmental and psychosocial. The environmental literature consist of subgroups such as antisocial behavior, aggression, self-isolation, aberrant behavior, and self-injurious behavior. The psychosocial literature consist of the subgroups maternal care, social skills, and psychological disorders.

Literature Review

Operational Definitions

Aberrant behaviors - consist of the three terms below

rocking: rhythmically moving forward and backward or side to side

coprophagy: ingestion of feces

fecal smearing: spreading of feces on a surface with the hands or mouth (Hare & Wobber, 2011)

Aggression- overt aggression, usually physical assault or threats of assault (Fouts, Fouts, Jensvold, Sanz, 2001)

Allogrooming - parting and searching through another individual’s hair with hands or the mouth or both (Aureli & Caws, 2001)

Self-injurious behavior- a deviant form of self aggression which involves [persistent] threats and physical attacks towards the self (Hosey & Skyner, 2007)

Enriched - an environment with neurologically stimulating contraptions, structures, that encourage searching for food, to emulate how they would search for food in the wild and encourage exercise (Self definition)

 

[djfishygillz]

Continued...

A few common themes have presented themselves. The major theme is that early life trauma in nonhuman primates appears to cause psychological disorders later in life. Typically the trauma is either psychosocial trauma or environmental trauma. Psychosocial trauma can be described as severe social isolation, loss of parents or family group. Separation from the mother is more traumatizing than losing any other family member to the offspring (Chernus, 2008). When nonhuman primates are separated from their mothers early in life, they are more prone to show aggression towards their offspring (Brent, Koban, Ramirez, 2002). Environmental trauma can also involve isolation, loss of habitat, or very poor environmental enrichment. Both these forms of trauma overlap with the psychological disorders they result in, such as P.T.S.D. and M.D.D. Some other common outcomes of the psychosocial and environmental trauma are increased aggression, increased self-isolation, decreased mutual grooming and appropriate social behavior, increases in aberrant behavior, and increases in self-injurious behavior (Chernus, 2008; Kessel & Brent, 1998; Ferdowsian & Durham, 2013; Kalcher-Sommersguter, Preuschoft, Crailsheim, Franz, 2011; Sackett, Holm, Ruppenthal 1976; Hosey & Skyner, 2007). Also another key theme is that the earlier the trauma occurs, the worse the severity of the later psychological disorder in the life of the NHP.

Social trauma and environmental trauma early in life of nonhuman primates often result in the later psychological abnormalities and disorders. Social trauma such as maternal separation leads to a wide range of abnormal behaviors such as major depressive disorder or posttraumatic stress disorder. Along with that it is significant to say that primates in captivity are more likely to suffer from M.D.D. and P.T.S.D. Zoo housed primates are more likely to suffer from M.D.D. and P.T.S.D. than sanctuary housed primates (Ferdowsian et al., 2011, pg 1-8). That is likely because sanctuary enclosures are more “enriched” and neurologically stimulating. Enrichment devices have many beneficial effects in a variety of primate species (Kessel & Brent, 228, 1998; Wobber & Hare, 2011).

The most effective course of treating the psychological disorders is multifaceted treatment therapy combined with medication (Bourgeois, Vazquez, Brasky, 2007). Another way to reduce stress in housing captive primates and to make giving medication easier is the use of positive reinforcement training (Laule & Whittaker, 2007; Laule, Bloomsmith, Schapiro, 2003; Pomerantz & Terkel, 2009).

Aberrant behaviors in general are more common in primates if the trauma occurs earlier than later in life (Kalcher-Sommersguter et al., 2011). As the attachment stage in humans is from six to thirty-six months, nonhuman primates appear to parallel this sensitive attachment stage. Early deprived chimpanzees compared to later deprived were less likely to display assertive behavior, less likely to engage in allogrooming, and social play (Kalcher-Sommersguter et al., 81-82, 2011). Maintaining quality social relationships is very important for NHPs psychological health in captivity (Kutsukake, 2003; Koski, Vries, Kraats, Sterck, 2012).

The research methods of nonhuman primates is mainly direct observation and is quantitative data. Research typically averages hour long observations for several months. One study involves a case report on self-injurious behavior in a lone chimpanzee and the multifaceted therapy and medication regimen they used (Bourgeois, Vazquez, Brasky, 2007). This was one of the few qualitative studies and produced very important data. It was more in depth and gave more insight than the typical quantitative data.

The researchers are nonparticipant observers, they simply record whether or not a behavior is observed. The only time they are participants is when they offer treats for positive reinforcement behavior. They are never a part of the nonhuman primate group, but they may influence the groups behaviors. They are actively working in their environment and in visual contact of the primates while conducting the studies. The research of nonhuman primates is often clear, easy to follow and comprehend. Nonhuman primate research has a good foundation and is proving more and more to mirror how research on human psychology developed. Many authors cite Bowlby for the attachment theories, and are developing their themes and specific area of research in nonhuman primate psychology. The researchers in the field are using the concrete ideas of psychology, to develop and elaborate how the nonhuman primates are alike, and also how they differ of course psychologically.

Discussion and Recommendations for Research and Practice

The field of nonhuman primate research is primarily done with direct observation and quantitative methods. There is rarely the use of qualitative methods, due to the fact that communication with the primates is virtually nonexistent. Another reason quantitative methods may be more prevalent, is the NHPs live in groups, so they tend to study the entire group. It could be beneficial for researchers to use the “sign language” technique to possible gather qualitative research, although, sign language could be invalid and unreliable. The research overall yields very reliable and valid results, with impressive replicability. Research takes place in numerous countries and often yields similar findings.

Studies based on isolation seem very questionable. It highly alters their sociability with other nonhuman primates later in life. Is it is worth the results, knowing the nonhuman primates can be permanently traumatized and experience psychological harm? Overall most studies, besides the isolation rearing, are noninvasive and cause little to no stress to the primates. They are just simply observing the primates natural behavior. The researchers typically do not cause the trauma, it has occurred in early life. The only time there is isolation testing, it is with monkeys who were purposely raised in isolation. Great apes, such as chimpanzees, gorillas, and apes are not used for isolation testing unless, they were reared that way naturally, not by the researchers. The great apes are never intentionally raised that way for research. The more unethical the research, the less researchers use the great apes and instead use small monkeys.

There is very limited research on wild populations of primates. Often research compares one captive NHP that was reared by a mother in captivity, to another NHP that experienced a trauma, and typically raised with some lacking form of husbandry. The main flaw amongst all the research is the only way to study the primates is whether or not they perform a behavior. If the primates behavior is misinterpreted, or they simply do not display the behavior, then that could cause invalid results. Often control groups are used, but the researchers are aware of which group is the control group and test group. Double-blind studies could add more validity to the results.

This research is proving that humans are not the only beings capable of experiencing trauma that has lasting negative psychological effects throughout the lifespan. The research being done is important, because as we discover more about the NHPs psychological sensitivity, it makes studying them seem less ethical. It may be that studying NHPs is not worth the trauma we cause them, or possibly we need to revise our methods to cause less distress.

Future research should consist of more qualitative methods. Using more qualitative methods may provide more info into how the multifaceted treatment therapy works better than single treatment methods. I would like to see more qualitative research because the research done now is still just scraping the surface. The research does provide good information on the basics, i.e. whether they are experiencing self-injurious behavior by hitting him or her self, but I feel it can be broken down more than that. I would like to see the research in NHPs be as translatable as it is when we conduct human studies. Hopefully with the use of more qualitative research we will discover direct-causal links from trauma to psychological disorder, instead of just strongly correlational. Although that may be a stretch as like humans, all NHPs appear to be different, so direct-causal links may be virtually nonexistent.

I would like to see more communication amongst zoos, sanctuaries and research facilities. Rarely does a journal article research more than one facility. If the research for each article was done over numerous facilities the results could be more generalizable.

 

[djfishygillz]

References

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